Specific Comparisons (Independent Groups)
Author(s)
David M. Lane
Prerequisites
Difference
Between Two Means (Independent Groups)
Learning Objectives
- Define linear combination
- Specify a linear combination in terms of coefficients
- Do a significance test for a specific comparison
There are many situations in which the comparisons
among means are more complicated than simply comparing one mean
with another. This section shows how to test these more complex
comparisons. The methods in this section assume that the comparison
among means was decided on before looking at the data. Therefore
these comparisons are called planned comparisons.
A different procedure is necessary for unplanned
comparisons.
Let's begin with the made-up data from a hypothetical
experiment shown in Table 1. Twelve subjects were selected from
a population of high-self-esteem subjects (esteem = 1) and an
additional 12 subjects were selected from a population of low-self-esteem
subjects (esteem = 2). Subjects then performed on a task and (independent
of how well they really did) half in each esteem category were told they succeeded (outcome
= 1) and the other half were told they failed (outcome = 2). Therefore,
there were six subjects in each of the four esteem/outcome combinations and
24 subjects in all.
After the task, subjects were asked to rate (on
a 10-point scale) how much of their outcome (success or failure)
they attributed to themselves as opposed to being due to the nature
of the task.
Table 1. Data from Hypothetical Experiment.
outcome
|
esteem
|
attrib
|
1
|
1
|
7
|
1
|
1
|
8
|
1
|
1
|
7
|
1
|
1
|
8
|
1
|
1
|
9
|
1
|
1
|
5
|
1
|
2
|
6
|
1
|
2
|
5
|
1
|
2
|
7
|
1
|
2
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
5
|
1
|
2
|
6
|
2
|
1
|
4
|
2
|
1
|
6
|
2
|
1
|
5
|
2
|
1
|
4
|
2
|
1
|
7
|
2
|
1
|
3
|
2
|
2
|
9
|
2
|
2
|
8
|
2
|
2
|
9
|
2
|
2
|
8
|
2
|
2
|
7
|
2
|
2
|
6
|
The means of the four conditions are shown in
Table 2.
Table 2. Mean ratings of self-attributions of success or failure.
Outcome
|
Esteem
|
Mean
|
Success
|
High Self-Esteem
|
7.333
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
5.500
|
Failure
|
High Self-Esteem
|
4.833
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
7.833
|
There are several questions we can ask about the
data. We begin by asking whether, on average, subjects who were
told they succeeded differed significantly from subjects who were
told they failed. The means for subjects in the success condition
are 7.333 for the high-self-esteem subjects and 5.500 for the
low-self-esteem subjects. Therefore, the mean for all subjects
in the success condition is (7.3333 + 5.5000)/2 = 6.4167. Similarly,
the mean for all subjects in the failure condition is (4.8333 +
7.8333)/2 = 6.3333. The question is: How do we do a significance
test for this difference of 6.4167-6.3333 = 0.083?
The first step is to express this difference in
terms of a linear combination using a set of coefficients and the
means. This may sound complex, but it is really pretty easy. We
can compute the mean of the success conditions by multiplying
each success mean by 0.5 and then adding the result. In other
words, we compute
(.5)(7.333) + (.5)(5.500)
= 3.67 + 2.75
= 6.42
Similarly, we can compute the mean of the failure
conditions by multiplying each "failure" mean by 0.5 and then adding
the result:
(.5)(4.833) + (.5)(7.833)
= 2.417 + 3.917
= 6.33
The difference between the two means can be expressed
as
.5 x 7.333 + .5 x 5.500 -(.5 x 4.833 + .5 x
7.833) =
.5 x 7.333 + .5 x 5.500 - .5 x 4.833 - .5 x 7.833
We therefore can compute the difference between
the "success" mean and the "failure" mean
by multiplying each "success" mean by 0.5, each failure
mean by -0.5, and adding the results. In Table 3, the coefficient
column is the multiplier and the product column is the result
of the multiplication. If we add up the four values in the product
column, we get
L = 3.667 + 2.750 - 2.417 - 3.917 = 0.083.
This is the same value we got when we computed
the difference between means previously (within rounding error).
We call the value "L" for "linear combination."
Table 3. Coefficients for comparing low and high self-esteem.
Outcome
|
Esteem
|
Mean
|
Coeff
|
Product
|
Success
|
High Self-Esteem
|
7.333
|
0.5
|
3.667
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
5.500
|
0.5
|
2.750
|
Failure
|
High Self-Esteem
|
4.833
|
-0.5
|
-2.417
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
7.833
|
-0.5
|
-3.917
|
Now, the question is whether our value of L is significantly different
from 0. The general formula for L is
where ci is the ith coefficient
and Mi is the ith mean. As shown above,
L = 0.083. The formula for testing L for significance is shown
below:
In this example,
MSE is the mean of the variances. The four variances
are shown in Table 4. Their mean is 1.625. Therefore MSE = 1.625.
Table 4. Variances of attributions of success or failure to oneself.
Outcome
|
Esteem
|
Variance
|
Success
|
High Self-Esteem
|
1.867
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
1.100
|
Failure
|
High Self-Esteem
|
2.167
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
1.367
|
The value of n is the number of subjects in each
group. Here n = 6.
Putting it all together,
We need to know the degrees of freedom in order
to compute the probability value. The degrees of freedom is
df = N - k
where N is the total number of subjects (24) and
k is the number of groups (4). Therefore, df = 20. Using the Online
Calculator, we find that the two-tailed probability value is 0.874.
Therefore, the difference between the "success" condition
and the "failure" condition is not significant.
Online
Calculator: t distribution
A more interesting question about the results is
whether the effect of outcome (success or failure) differs depending
on the self-esteem of the subject. For example, success may make
high-self-esteem subjects more likely
to attribute the outcome to themselves, whereas success may make
low-self-esteem subjects less likely
to attribute the outcome to themselves.
To test this, we have to test a difference between
differences. Specifically, is the difference between success and
failure outcomes for the high-self-esteem subjects different from
the difference between success and failure outcomes for the low-self-esteem
subjects? The means shown in Table 5 show that this is the case.
For the high-self-esteem subjects, the difference between the
success and failure attribution scores is 7.333-4.833 = 2.500. For low-self-esteem
subjects, the difference is 5.500-7.833 = -2.333. The difference
between differences is 2.500 - (-2.333) = 4.833.
The coefficients to test this difference between
differences are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Coefficients for testing difference between differences.
Self-Esteem
|
Outcome
|
Mean
|
Coeff
|
Product
|
High
|
Success
|
7.333
|
1
|
7.333
|
Failure
|
4.833
|
-1
|
-4.833
|
Low
|
Success
|
5.500
|
-1
|
-5.500
|
Failure
|
7.833
|
1
|
7.833
|
If it is hard to see where these coefficients
came from, consider that our difference between differences was
computed this way:
(7.33 - 4.83) - (5.50 - 7.83)
= 7.33 - 4.83 - 5.50 + 7.83
= (1)7.33 + (-1)4.83 + (-1)5.50 + (1)7.83
The values in parentheses are the coefficients.
To continue the calculations,
The two-tailed p value is 0.0002. Therefore, the
difference between differences is highly significant.
In a later chapter on Analysis
of Variance, you
will see that comparisons such as this are testing what is called
an interaction. In general, there
is an interaction when the effect of one variable differs as
a function of the level of another variable. In this example, the effect of the outcome variable is different depending on the subject's self-esteem. For the high-self-esteem subjects, success led to more self-attribution than did failure; for the low-self-esteem subjects, success led to less self-attribution than did failure.
Multiple Comparisons
The more comparisons you make, the greater your
chance of a Type I error. It is useful to distinguish between
two error rates: (1) the per-comparison error
rate and (2) the familywise error rate.
The per-comparison error rate is the probability of a Type I error
for a particular comparison. The familywise error rate is the
probability of making one or more Type I errors in a family or
set of comparisons. In the attribution experiment discussed above,
we computed two comparisons. If we use the 0.05 level for each
comparison, then the per-comparison rate is simply 0.05. The familywise
rate can be complex. Fortunately, there is a simple approximation
that is fairly accurate when the number of comparisons is small.
Defining α as the per-comparison error rate and c as the number
of comparisons, the following inequality always holds true for
the familywise error rate (FW):
FW ≤ cα
This inequality is called the Bonferroni
inequality. In practice, FW can be approximated by cα. This is a conservative approximation since FW can never be greater than cα and is generally less than cα.
The Bonferroni inequality can be used to control
the familywise error rate as follows: If you want the familywise
error rate to be α, you use α/c as the per-comparison
error rate. This correction, called the Bonferroni
correction, will generally result in a familywise error
rate less than α. Alternatively, you could multiply the probability value by c and use the original α level.
Should the familywise error rate be controlled?
Unfortunately, there is no clear-cut answer to this question.
The disadvantage of controlling the familywise error rate is that
it makes it more difficult to obtain a significant result for
any given comparison: The more comparisons you do, the lower the
per-comparison rate must be and therefore the harder it is to
reach significance. That is, the power is lower when you control
the familywise error rate. The advantage is that you have a lower
chance of making a Type I error.
One consideration is the definition of a family
of comparisons. Let's say you conducted a study in which you
were interested in whether there was a difference between male
and female babies in the age at which they started crawling.
After you finished analyzing the data, a colleague of yours
had a totally different research question: Do babies who are
born in the winter differ from those born in the summer in the
age they start crawling? Should the familywise rate be controlled
or should it be allowed to be greater than 0.05? Our view is
that there is no reason you should be penalized (by lower power)
just because your colleague used the same data to address a
different research question. Therefore, the familywise error
rate need not be controlled. Consider the two comparisons done
on the attribution
example at the beginning of this section: These comparisons
are testing completely different hypotheses. Therefore, controlling
the familywise rate is not necessary.
Now consider a study designed to investigate the
relationship between various variables and the ability of subjects
to predict the outcome of a coin flip. One comparison is between
males and females; a second comparison is between those over 40
and those under 40; a third is between vegetarians and non-vegetarians;
and a fourth is between firstborns and others. The question of
whether these four comparisons are testing different hypotheses
depends on your point of view. On the one hand, there is nothing
about whether age makes a difference that is related to whether
diet makes a difference. In that sense, the comparisons are addressing
different hypotheses. On the other hand, the whole series of comparisons
could be seen as addressing the general question of whether anything
affects the ability to predict the outcome of a coin flip. If
nothing does, then allowing the familywise rate to be high means
that there is a high probability of reaching the wrong conclusion.
Orthogonal Comparisons
In the preceding sections, we talked about comparisons
being independent. Independent comparisons are often called orthogonal
comparisons. There is a simple test to determine whether
two comparisons are orthogonal: If the sum of the products of
the coefficients is 0, then the comparisons are orthogonal. Consider
again the experiment on the attribution of success or failure.
Table 6 shows the coefficients previously presented in Table
3 and in Table 5. The column "C1"
contains the coefficients from the comparison shown in Table
3; the column "C2" contains the coefficients from
the comparison shown in Table 5. The column
labeled "Product" is the product of these two columns.
Note that the sum of the numbers in this column is 0. Therefore,
the two comparisons are orthogonal.
Table 6. Coefficients for two orthogonal comparisons.
Outcome
|
Esteem
|
C1
|
C2
|
Product
|
Success
|
High Self-Esteem
|
0.5
|
1
|
0.5
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
0.5
|
-1
|
-0.5
|
Failure
|
High Self-Esteem
|
-0.5
|
-1
|
0.5
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
-0.5
|
1
|
-0.5
|
Table 7 shows two comparisons that are not orthogonal.
The first compares the high-self-esteem subjects to low-self-esteem
subjects; the second considers only those in the success group
and compares high-self-esteem subjects to low-self-esteem subjects.
The failure group is ignored by using 0's as coefficients. Clearly
the comparison of these two groups of subjects for the whole sample
is not independent of the comparison of them for the success group only.
You can see that the sum of the products of the coefficients is
0.5 and not 0.
Table 7. Coefficients for two non-orthogonal comparisons.
Outcome
|
Esteem
|
C1
|
C2
|
Product
|
Success
|
High Self-Esteem
|
0.5
|
0.5
|
0.25
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
-0.5
|
-0.5
|
0.25
|
Failure
|
High Self-Esteem
|
0.5
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
Low Self-Esteem
|
-0.5
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
Please answer the questions:
|